mamluk sultanate interactions with the environmentmamluk sultanate interactions with the environment

[195] These goods originated in Persia, India, and Southeast Asia and made their way to Europe via the Mamluk ports of Syria and Egypt. The Mamlk Sultanate in the reign of Baybars I (1260-1273) This was a short-term arrangement: Muslim political . [22] However, Turanshah sought to challenge the dominance of the Salihiyyah in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his Kurdish retinue from Upper Mesopotamia ("al-Jazira" in Arabic) and the Levant as a counterweight to the predominantly Turkic Salihiyyah. . na'ib as-saltana). [100] However, following his death, a Circassian emir, Tatar, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the atabeg al-asakir and assumed power. They were made of brass or bronze with inlaid decoration, though in the later periods decoration was often engraved rather than inlaid. [172] In Egypt in particular, the Nile River's centralizing influence also contributed to Mamluk centralization over the region. The Mamluks excelled in warfare, forcing the Mongol invasion through the Middle East and into Egypt to a screeching halt; on another occasion, they captured the French king during the 7th Crusade and ransomed him back to his country. The Mamluk Sultanate ( Arabic: , romanized : Salanat al-Mamlk ), also known as Mamluk Egypt or the Mamluk Empire, was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) from the mid-13th to early 16th centuries. [100] Shaykh also commissioned and led military expeditions against the Mamluks' enemies in Anatolia, reasserting the state's influence in that region. This work is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY). [98] Faraj was able to hold onto power during this turbulent period, which in addition to Timur's devastating raids, the rise of Turkic tribes in Jazira and attempts by Barquq's emirs to topple Faraj, also saw a famine in Egypt in 1403, a severe plague in 1405 and a Bedouin revolt that virtually ended the Mamluks' hold over Upper Egypt between 1401 and 1413. [131] Many Coptic Christians decided to convert to Islam or at least adopt the outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment, avoid jizyah taxation and avoid official measures against them. Jamdariyyah) and Bahri (pl. In May 1285, he captured the Marqab fortress and garrisoned it. [142] Competition over iqtaat and the post of amir al-arab (chief commander of the Bedouin) among the Bedouin tribes of Syria, particularly the Al Fadl, led to conflict and rebellion among the tribes, leading to mass bloodshed in Syria in the aftermath of an-Nasir Muhammad's death. [166] For example, an emir of forty would be given an iqta a third of the size of an emir of one hundred's iqta. On 5 April 1250, covered by the darkness of night, the Crusaders evacuated their camp opposite al-Mansurah and began to flee northward towards Damietta. At one point, a Caliph was installed to provide legitimacy to their state. The revenues and expenses of these charitable complexes were governed by inalienable waqf agreements that also served the secondary purpose of ensuring some form of income or property for the patrons' descendants. [162] As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they would often utilize their respective forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. [69] A further Ilkhanid invasion in 1303 was repelled after the Ilkhanid defeat at the Battle of Marj al-Suffar in the plains south of Damascus. [111][113], The ruling military elite of the sultanate was exclusive to those of mamluk background, with rare exceptions. Delhi Sultanate allowed for a more self-reflective, linear foundation of the Sultanate in the practices of Muslim statecraft. Nonetheless, with rare exception, the Burji sultans were all linked to the regime's founder Barquq through blood or mamluk affiliation. [132][133][134][135] Others may have converted in order to retain employment. [178] In the Mamluk era, the iqta was an emir's principal source of income,[179] and starting in 1337,[180] Mamluk iqta holders would lease or sell rights to their iqtaat to non-mamluks in order to derive greater revenues. Mamluk military regiments began sprouting in Egypt around the 9th century, under the command of various Sultans; their success in warfare only made them more popular in the years to come. The halqa regiments declined in the 14th century when professional non-mamluk soldiers generally stopped joining the force. [166] The reformation of iqta distribution created a clear link between an emir's rank and the size of his iqta. Lasting from the deposition of the Ayyubid dynasty (c. 1250) to the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, this regime of slave-soldiers incorporated many of the political structures and cultural traditions of its Fatimid and Ayyubid predecessors. [196] Furthermore, in 1429, he ordered that the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria, thus attempting to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. Then, Aybak's successor, another Mamluk commander named Qutuz, officially founded the Mamluk Sultanate in 1250 CE. [110] The continuing invasions of Syria by Mongol armies led to further waves of Syrian immigrants, including scholars and artisans, to Egypt. [23], Turanshah proceeded to place his own entourage and mamluks, known as the "Mu'azzamiyah",[21] in positions of authority to the detriment of Salihi interests. Abstract: Agriculture has been the main source of the economy for all dynasties established in Egypt and the Mamluk kingdom was no exception. [92], Barquq solidified his control over the sultanate in 1393, when his forces killed the major opponent to his rule, Mintash, in Syria. Although the Mamluk sultanate was destroyed, the Mamluks remained intact as a class in Egypt and continued to exercise considerable influence in the state. [93] Barquq entered into a brief engagement with Timur at the Euphrates in 1394, but Timur withdrew during that episode. [93] Towards the end of the 14th century, challengers to the Mamluks emerged in Anatolia, including the Ottoman dynasty who absorbed the territory of the Karamanids in central Anatolia and installed a vassal as the leader of the Dulkadirids in 1399, and the Turkic allies of Timur, the Aq Qoyonlu and Kara Qoyounlu tribes who entered southern and eastern Anatolia in the same time period. [70], Baybars II ruled for roughly one year before an-Nasir Muhammad became sultan again in 1310, this time ruling for over three consecutive decades in a period that is often considered by historians of the Mamluk period to be the apex of both the Bahri regime specifically and the Mamluk Sultanate in general. [84][86], Yalbugha became the regent of Hasan's successor and the young son of the late sultan Hajji, al-Mansur Muhammad. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". The Mamluk Sultanate survived until 1517, when it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. "The Mamluks and Their Acceptance of Oghuz Turkish as Literary Language: Political Maneuver or Cultural Aspiration? Qalawun's forces were significantly outnumbered by the estimated 80,000-strong Ilkhanid-Armenian-Georgian-Seljuk coalition, but marched north from Damascus to meet the Ilkhanid army at Homs. [202], Glass lamps were another high point of Mamluk art, particularly those commissioned for mosques. [210][211] Minarets, which were also elaborate, usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having a different design than the others. 1: Map of the Mamluk Sultanate, 1317 CE Author: User "Ro4444" Source: Wikimedia Commons License: CC BY-SA 4.0. The Mamluk Sultanate lasted until 1517 when it was consumed by the expanding Ottoman Empire. [169] The office of ustadar al-aliyah became a powerful post beginning in the late 14th century,[170] particularly so under sultans Barquq and an-Nasir Faraj,[169][170] who transferred the responsibilities of the special bureau for their mamluks to the authority of the ustadar, thus turning the latter into the sultanate's chief financial official. [138], Bedouin tribes served as a reserve force in the Mamluk military. Source: RomanDeckert, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. The ruling Ottomans warred between the ambitious Albanian mercenary regiment under the command of Muhammed Ali and the last remnants of the Mamluks in Cairo. Test your knowledge with gamified quizzes. [35] While al-Mansur Ali was sultan, the strongman in Egypt was Aybak's former close aide, Sayf ad-Din Qutuz,[37] who also had hostile relations with the Salihiyyah, including the Bahri mamluks. [65] In a bid to consolidate his control, Lajin attempted to redistribute iqtaat to his supporters. [123] Other Sufi orders with large numbers of adherents were the Rifa'iyyah and Badawiyyah. [147], The Mamluk sultan was the ultimate government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as nuwwab as-saltana (deputy sultans, sing. [181] Land was assessed by the periodic rawk (cadastral survey), which consisted of a survey of land parcels (measured by feddan units), assessment of land quality and the annual estimated tax revenue of the parcels, and classification of a parcel's legal status as waqf (trust) or iqta. Keep reading to learn more about the Mamluk Sultanate environment, culture, and more. They then conquered or gained suzerainty over the Ayyubids' Syrian principalities. However, in 1256, he dispatched a Bahri-led expedition to Egypt, but no battle occurred when Aybak met an-Nasir Yusuf's army. Drought's effects on the population slowed the Ottoman Empire's expansion in the 16th century. [187], Among the responsibilities of a Mamluk provincial or district governor were repopulating depopulated areas to foster agricultural production, protecting the lands from Bedouin raids, increasing productivity in barren lands[186] (likely through the upkeep and expansion of existing irrigation networks),[188] and devoting special attention to the cultivation of the more arable low-lying regions. [114] As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population. "[156] The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of khushdashiyya, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. [34], Meanwhile, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf. [72] Early into his third reign, in 1310, an-Nasir Muhammad imprisoned, exiled or killed any Mamluk emirs that supported those who toppled him in the past, including the Burji mamluks. That is, until the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. [126][127] The association of Christians with the Mongols, due to the latter's use of Armenian and Georgian Christian auxiliaries, the attempted alliance between the Mongols and the Crusader powers, and the massacre of Muslim communities and the sparing of Christians in cities captured by the Mongols, may have contributed to rising anti-Christian sentiments in the Mamluk era. [139] Bedouin tribes were also a major source of the Mamluk cavalry's Arabian horses. Agricultural Bank of Egypt. However, Ghazan withdrew most of his troops from Syria shortly after due to a dearth in fodder for their numerous horses and the residual Ilkhanid force retreated in 1300 at the approach of the rebuilt Mamluk army. [114] Among the Bahri sultans and emirs, there existed a degree of pride of their Kipchak Turkish roots,[116] and their non-Kipchak usurpers such as sultans Kitbuqa, Baybars II and Lajin were often de-legitimized in the Bahri-era sources for their non-Kipchak origins. To accomplish this, he instituted a postal network that extended across the cities of Egypt and Syria. [93], Barquq died in 1399 and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son, an-Nasir Faraj, who was in Damascus at the time. Baibars attempts to expand into Mongol Territory The seventh Crusade begins [117], A wide range of Islamic religious expression existed in Egypt during the early Mamluk era, namely Sunni Islam and its major madhabs (schools of thought) and various Sufi orders, but also small communities of Ismai'li Shia Muslims,[118] particularly in Upper Egypt. 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